Protein in the athlete’s diet: rationale for intake levels at different training intensities to maintain lean body mass (a brief review)
Abstract
Nutrition in sports, as a branch of nutritional science, is a constantly developing field with a growing number of scientific researches and recommendations concerning the justification of the diet composition to ensure the requirements for macro- and micronutrients of the athlete’s body at different stages of sports activity and energy value, as well as the use of special dietary supplements of various nature, including protein in forms of specialized dry mixes, drinks, etc.
The aim of the research was to present the results of studies conducted abroad, presented in review publications and original articles, on the role of protein and the impact of its various levels of consumption on the maintenance of muscle mass as a criterion for the effectiveness of diets used, including in conditions of their reduced calorie content; on the safety of consuming significantly higher than recommended amounts of protein (>2.0 g/kg of body weight per day); about the relationship between protein dose and the possible increase in lean body mass.
Material and methods. For the main source search, the PubMed Internet resource was used, and the websites of the Springer and Elsevier publishers were used to access the full text of the articles. Search depth 10 years.
Results. This review presents the official position of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) on the role of protein in training optimization, body composition change and improving the performance of athletes. Generalized data on the body’s energy costs for the assimilation of nutrients, food thermogenesis and the importance of protein for maintaining resting energy expenditure are presented. Published results based on meta-analyses support the efficacy of higher protein intake in reducing body weight and fat mass while maintaining lean mass in an energy-deficient setting. The anabolic properties of protein under conditions of increased physical exertion will manifest themselves only with sufficient energy and protein supply. The proposed values and boundaries within which increased protein intake effectively affect body composition in the process of adaptation to strength training are given. It has been shown that an increase in protein intake above the average maximum values practically does not lead to an increase in lean body mass without the simultaneous introduction of additional resistance exercises that restores its growth. In accordance with the official position of the ISSN, the recommended protein intake corresponds to values from 1.4 to 2.0 g/kg of body weight per day for individuals performing various special sets of physical exercises. The use of high-protein diets (protein >2.0 g/kg/day) in highly qualified athletes who do not have kidney and liver diseases showed no changes in the biochemical parameters of blood and bone mineral density confirming its safety.
Conclusion. Based on the analysis of scientific data, it can be stated that proteins make the main contribution to the thermogenesis of the body compared to other dietary macronutrients. The effect of protein intake on body composition, recovery and muscle building of an athlete has been proven. Athletes require higher amounts of protein to optimal increase of lean body mass under increased training loads and to maintain lean mass under an energy-deficient diet. If necessary, high-protein diets can be used in highly qualified athletes without kidney or liver diseases, but comprehensive researches in this direction should be continued.
Keywords:sports nutrition; protein; high protein ration; thermogenesis; body mass; fat free mass; athlete; resistance exercises
Funding. The research was carried out at the expense of a subsidy for the fulfillment of a state task within the framework of the Program for Fundamental Scientific Research of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences (subject No. FGMF-2022-0004).
Conflict of interest. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Contribution. Collection and processing of the data, its analysis, writing the text – Zilova I.S.; general editing of the text and conclusion – Trushina E.N., approval of the final version of the article, responsibility for the integrity of all parts of the article – all authors.
For citation: Zilova I.S., Trushina E.N. Protein in the athlete’s diet: rationale for intake levels at different training intensities to maintain lean body mass (a brief review). Voprosy pitaniia [Problems of Nutrition]. 2023; 92 (4): 114–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33029/0042-8833-2023-92-4-114-124 (in Russian)
References
1. Mogil’ny M.P., Tutelyan V.A. Features of catering for athletes. Voprosy pitaniia [Problems of Nutrition]. 2015; 84 (S3): 42–3. (in Russian)
2. Tutelyan V.A., Nikityuk D.B., Pogozheva A.V. Sports nutrition: from theory to practice. Moscow: DeLi, 2020: 256 p. ISBN 978-5-6042712-9-2 (in Russian)
3. Nikityuk D.B., Kobel’kova I.V. Sports nutrition as a model of maximum individualization and implementation of integrative medicine. Voprosy pitaniia [Problems of Nutrition]. 2020; 89 (4): 203–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24411/0042-8833-2020-10054 (in Russian)
4. Kerksick C.M., Wilborn C.D., Roberts M.D., Smith-Ryan A., Kleiner S.M., Jäger R., et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15 (1): 38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y
5. Jäger R., Kerksick C.M., Campbell B.I., Cribb P.J., Wells S.D., Skwiat T.M., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
6. Trexler E.T., Smith-Ryan A.E., Stout J.R., Hoffman J.R., Wilborn C.D., Sale C., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: beta-alanine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; 12: 30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y
7. Kreider R.B., Kalman D.S., Antonio J., Ziegenfuss T.N., Wildman R., Collins R., et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z
8. Wax B., Kerksick C.M., Jagim A.R., Mayo J.J., Lyons B.C., Kreider R.B. Creatine for exercise and sports performance, with recovery considerations for healthy populations. Nutrients. 2021; 3 (6): 1915. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13061915
9. Kerksick C.M., Arent S., Schoenfeld B.J., Stout J.R., Campbell B., Wilborn C.D., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: nutrient timing. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0189-4
10. Jäger R., Mohr A.E., Carpenter K.C., Kerksick C.M., Purpura M., Moussa A., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: probiotics. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019; 16 (1): 62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-019-0329-0
11. Aragon A.A., Schoenfeld B.J., Wildman R., Kleiner S., Vandusseldorp T., Taylor L., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017; 14: 16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y
12. Gonzalez D.E., McAllister M.J., Waldman H.S., Ferrando A.A., Joyce J., Barringer N.D., et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: tactical athlete nutrition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2022; 19 (1): 267–315. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15502783.2022.2086017
13. Pesta D.H., Samuel V.T. A high-protein diet for reducing body fat: mechanisms and possible caveats. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2014; 11 (1): 53. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-11-53
14. Egorenkova N.P., Sokolov A.I., Bershteyn S.M., Baturin A.K. Study of food thermogenesis of proteins and fats. Voprosy pitaniia [Problems of Nutrition]. 2016; 85 (S2): 231–232. (in Russian)
15. Morton R.W., Murphy K.T., Mckellar S.R., Schoenfeld B.J., Henselmans M., Helms E., et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med. 2018; 52 (6): 376–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
16. Cermak N.M., Res P.T., De Groot L.C., Saris W.H., Van Loon L.J. Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012; 96 (6): 1454–64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.037556
17. Stokes T., Hector A.J., Morton R.W., Mcglory C., Phillips S.M. Recent perspectives regarding the role of dietary protein for the promotion of muscle hypertrophy with resistance exercise training. Nutrients. 2018; 10 (2): 180. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020180
18. Macnaughton L.S., Wardle S.L., Witard O.C., Mcglory C., Hamilton D.L., Jeromson S., et al. The response of muscle protein synthesis following whole-body resistance exercise is greater following 40 g than 20 g of ingested whey protein. Physiol Rep. 2016; 4 (15): e12893. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.12893
19. Bandegan A., Courtney-Martin G., Rafii M., Pencharz P.B., Lemon P.W. Indicator amino acid-derived estimate of dietary protein requirement for male bodybuilders on a nontraining day is several-fold greater than the current recommended dietary allowance. J Nutr. 2017; 147 (5): 850–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.236331
20. Schoenfeld B.J., Aragon A.A. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15: 10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1
21. Moore D.R. Maximizing post-exercise anabolism: the case for relative protein intakes. Front Nutr. 2019; 6: 147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00147
22. Tahavorgar A., Vafa M., Shidfar F., Gohari M., Heydari I. Whey protein preloads are more beneficial than soy protein preloads in regulating appetite, calorie intake, anthropometry, and body composition of overweight and obese men. Nutr Res. 2014; 34 (10): 856–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2014.08.015
23. Pasiakos S.M., Cao J.J., Margolis L.M., Sauter E.R., Whigham L.D., Mcclung J.P., et al. Effects of high-protein diets on fat-free mass and muscle protein synthesis following weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2013; 27 (9): 3837–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.13-230227
24. Longland T.M., Oikawa S.Y., Mitchell C.J., Devries M.C., Phillips S.M. Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise promotes greater lean mass gain and fat mass loss: a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016; 103 (3): 738–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.115.119339
25. Helms E., Zinn C., Rowlands D., Brown S. A systematic review of dietary protein during caloric restriction in resistance trained lean athletes: a case for higher intakes. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2014; 24 (2): 127–38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2013-0054
26. Memelink R.G., Pasman W.J., Bongers A., Tump A., van Ginkel A., Tromp W., et al. Effect of an enriched protein drink on muscle mass and glycemic control during combined lifestyle intervention in older adults with obesity and type 2 diabetes: a double-blind RCT. Nutrients. 2021; 13 (1): 64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010064
27. Barringer N.D., Pasiakos S.M., McClung H.L., Crombie A.P., Margolis L.M. Prediction equation for estimating total daily energy requirements of special operations personnel. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15 (1): 15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0219-x
28. Gwin J.A., Church D.D., Wolfe R.R., Ferrando A.A., Pasiakos S.M. Muscle protein synthesis and whole-body protein turnover responses to ingesting essential amino acids, intact protein, and protein-containing mixed meals with considerations for energy deficit. Nutrients. 2020; 12 (8): 2457. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12082457
29. Pasiakos S.M., Austin K.G., Lieberman H.R., Askew E.W. Efficacy and safety of protein supplements for U.S. Armed Forces personnel: consensus statement. J Nutr. 2013; 143 (11): 1811S–4S. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.113.176859
30. Pasiakos S.M., Margolis L.M., Orr J.S. Optimized dietary strategies to protect skeletal muscle mass during periods of unavoidable energy deficit. FASEB J. 2015; 29 (4): 1136–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.14-266890
31. Carbone J.W., McClung J.P., Pasiakos S.M. Recent advances in the characterization of skeletal muscle and whole-body protein responses to dietary protein and exercise during negative energy balance. Adv Nutr. 2019; 10 (1): 70–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy087
32. Margolis L.M., Murphy N.E., Martini S., Gundersen Y., Castellani J.W., Karl J.P., et al. Effects of supplemental energy on protein balance during 4-d arctic military training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016; 48 (8): 1604–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000944
33. Berryman C.E., Young A.J., Karl J.P., Kenefick R.W., Margolis L.M., Cole R.E., et al. Severe negative energy balance during 21 d at high altitude decreases fat-free mass regardless of dietary protein intake: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2018; 32 (2): 894–905. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201700915R
34. Gwin J.A., Church D.D., Hatch-McChesney A., Howard E.E., Carrigan C.T., Murphy N.E., et al. Effects of high versus standard essential amino acid intakes on whole-body protein turnover and mixed muscle protein synthesis during energy deficit: a randomized, crossover study. Clin Nutr. 2021; 40 (3): 767–77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.019
35. Gwin J.A., Church D.D., Hatch-McChesney A., Allen J.T., Wilson M.A., Varanoske A.N., et al. Essential amino acid-enriched whey enhances post-exercise whole-body protein balance during energy deficit more than iso-nitrogenous whey or a mixed-macronutrient meal: a randomized, crossover study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021; 18 (1): 4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-020-00401-5
36. Church D.D., Hirsch K.R., Park S., Kim I.Y., Gwin J.A., Pasiakos S.M., et al. Essential amino acids and protein synthesis: insights into maximizing the muscle and whole-body response to feeding. Nutrients. 2020; 12 (12): 3717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123717
37. Antonio J., Peacock C.A., Ellerbroek A., Fromhoff B., Silver T. The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014; 11: 19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-11-19
38. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Silver T., Orris S., Scheiner M., Gonzalez A., Peacock C.A. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women – a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015; 12: 39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0
39. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Silver T., Vargas L., Peacock C. The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition – a crossover trial in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2016; 13: 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0114-2
40. Antonio J., Ellerbroek A., Evans C., Silver T., Peacock C.A. High protein consumption in trained women: bad to the bone? Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018; 15: 6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0210-6
41. Morales F., Tinsley G., Gordon P. Acute and long-term impact of high-protein diets on endocrine and metabolic function, body composition, and exercise-induced adaptations. J Am Coll Nutr. 2017; 36 (4): 295–305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07315724.2016.1274691
42. Cuenca-Sanchez M., Navas-Carrillo D., Orenes-Pinero E. Controversies surrounding high-protein diet intake: satiating effect and kidney and bone health. Adv Nutr. 2015; 6 (3): 260–6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.007716
43. Huang M.C., Chen M.E., Hung H.C., Chen H.C., Chang W.T., Lee C.H., et al. Inadequate energy and excess protein intakes may be associated with worsening renal function in chronic kidney disease. J Ren Nutr. 2008; 18 (2): 187–94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jrn.2007.08.003
44. Fink H.A., Akornor J.W., Garimella P.S., MacDonald R., Cutting A., Rutks I.R., et al. Diet, fluid, or supplements for secondary prevention of nephrolithiasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Eur Urol. 2009; 56 (1): 72–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eururo.2009.03.031
45. Eliseev M.S., Vykhodets I.T., Kruglova I.V., Chikina M.N., Zhelyabina O.V., Il’inykh E.V., et al. Prevalence of hyperuricemia in professional athletes and its role in the genesis of various pathological conditions and metabolic disturbances. Sovremennaya revmatologiya [Modern Rheumatology]. 2018; 12 (3): 82–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14412/1996-7012-2018-3-82-88 (in Russian)
46. Eliseev M.S., Vykhodets I.T., Unusov F.A., Kruglova I.V., Chikina M.N., Zhelyabina O.V., et al. Risk factors for the development of hyperuricemia in professional athletes of various sports according to the results of multi-year retrospective observation. Lechebnaya fizkultura i sportivnaya meditsina [Exercise Therapy and Sports Medicine]. 2019; (1): 12–20. (in Russian)
47. Eliseev M.S., Chikina M.N., Kobel’kova I.V., Vykhodets I.T., Zhelyabina O.V., Nikityuk D.B., et al. Evaluation of the risk group for protein and purin disbalance in professional athletes in various sports. Lechebnaya fizkultura i sportivnaya meditsina [Exercise Therapy and Sports Medicine]. 2019; (2): 6–13. (in Russian)
48. Tagawa R., Watanabe D., Ito K., Ueda K., Nakayama K., Sanbongi C., et al. Dose-response relationship between protein intake and muscle mass increase: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev. 2021; 79 (1): 66–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuaa104
49. Popova A.Yu., Tutelyan V.A., Nikityuk D.B. On the new (2021) Norms of physiological requirements in energy and nutrients of various groups of the population of the Russian Federation. Voprosy pitaniia [Problems of Nutrition]. 2021; 90 (4): 6–19. (in Russian)
50. Kobel’kova I.V., Nikityuk D.B., Radzhabkadiev R.M., Vybornaya K.V., Lavrinenko S.V., Semenov M.M. Regulatory framework in sports nutrition in Russian Federation (review). Klinicheskoe pitanie i metabolism [Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism]. 2020; 1 (30): 144–52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17816/clinutr50227 (in Russian)